Performance Evaluation of Conventional GNSS-IMU Fusion Algorithms on Commercial Smartphones Under Typical Scenarios

Min He

Abstract:	The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) enables continuous, all-weather, and high-precision Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services for end users. For the majority of users, smartphones serve as the primary platform for accessing PNT services. By retrieving the PNT computational outcomes integrated into the smartphone’s System on a Chip (SoC), individuals can conveniently access their real-time location, feasible navigation routes to destinations, and geographic information about areas of interest. While standalone GNSS solutions have been widely adopted, recent advancements integrate Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) data to enhance accuracy and robustness through multi-sensor fusion algorithms. However, systematic performance testing of existing algorithms under realistic usage scenarios remains limited. This study conducts a comprehensive performance testing of 3 GNSS-only algorithm – Least Squares (LS), Carrier-to-Noise ratio (C/N0) weighted Least Squares (WLS), and Carrier-Phase-Smoothed LS – alongside 5 GNSS/IMU fusion algorithms (Kalman Filter (KF), Extended KF (EKF), Error-State KF (ESKF), Unscented KF (UKF), and Factor Graph Optimization (FGO)). Implemented on Android smartphones, these algorithms were tested in stationary and pedestrian modes in 4 representative environments: open-sky, dense foliage, urban canyon, and indoor settings. Metrics including availability, accuracy, robustness against signal degradation, reliability, and computational complexity were rigorously evaluated. This research provides critical insights for optimizing existing algorithms on smartphone platforms and lays the foundation for delivering enhanced PNT services to massive smartphone user bases.
Published in:	Proceedings of the 38th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2025) September 8 - 12, 2025 Hilton Baltimore Inner Harbor Baltimore, Maryland
Pages:	1187 - 1188
Cite this article:	He, Min, "Performance Evaluation of Conventional GNSS-IMU Fusion Algorithms on Commercial Smartphones Under Typical Scenarios," Proceedings of the 38th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2025), Baltimore, Maryland, September 2025, pp. 1187-1188. https://doi.org/10.33012/2025.20323
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